Table 3

Adjusted comparisons: early life exposures as predictors of ECD outcomes at 24 months of age

ECD outcome		Unstandardised coefficients		Standardised coefficients			95% CI
ECD outcome		Beta	SE	Beta	t	P value	Lower bound	Upper bound
Visual acuity (n=622)
	Constant	0.34	0.31		1.11	0.27	−0.26	0.95
	Sex	−0.01	0.01	−0.06	−1.26	0.21	−0.04	0.01
	Age at ECD assessment, months	−0.02	0.01	−0.09	2.18	0.03*	−0.03	0.00
	Maternal age at birth, years	0.00	0.00	−0.07	1.46	0.15	0.00	0.01
	Parity	0.00	0.00	0.02	−0.34	0.73	−0.01	0.01
	Gestational age at birth, weeks	0.00	0.00	−0.06	−1.48	0.14	0.00	0.00
	LAZ₁₂	−0.01	0.00	−0.15	1.57	0.12	0.00	0.01
	LAZ₂₄ ^**	−0.01	0.00	−0.31	−2.94	<0.001^**	−0.02	0.00
	WAZ₁₂	0.00	0.01	−0.02	−0.20	0.84	−0.02	0.02
	WAZ₂₄	−0.01	0.01	−0.12	1.18	0.24	−0.01	0.03
	HCAZ_birth	0.00	0.01	−0.05	0.90	0.37	−0.01	0.01
	HCAZ₁₂	−0.01	0.01	−0.16	−1.58	0.11	−0.03	0.00
	HCAZ₂₄	−0.01	0.01	−0.12	1.19	0.24	−0.01	0.03
	SES	0.00	0.00	−0.03	−0.56	0.57	−0.01	0.00
	Maternal education, years	−0.01	0.00	−0.41	−7.95	<0.001^**	−0.01	−0.01
	FCI: play activities	0.00	0.00	−0.01	−0.24	0.81	−0.01	0.01
	FCI: household books	0.00	0.01	−0.02	−0.37	0.71	−0.02	0.01
Contrast sensitivity (n=627)	Constant	2.70	2.36		1.14	0.26	−1.95	7.34
	Sex	−0.06	0.09	−0.03	−0.63	0.53	−0.23	0.12
	Age at ECD assessment, months	−0.05	0.05	0.04	0.86	0.39	−0.06	0.15
	Maternal age at birth, years	−0.01	0.01	0.02	0.60	0.55	−0.01	0.03
	LAZ_birth	−0.02	0.03	0.03	0.63	0.53	−0.04	0.07
	LAZ₁₂	−0.01	0.03	0.01	0.17	0.87	−0.06	0.07
	LAZ₂₄	−0.01	0.03	−0.04	−0.38	0.70	−0.06	0.04
	WAZ₁₂	−0.03	0.08	−0.03	−0.38	0.70	−0.20	0.13
	WAZ₂₄	−0.01	0.08	−0.01	−0.07	0.95	−0.16	0.15
	HCAZ_birth	−0.04	0.04	−0.05	−0.85	0.40	−0.12	0.05
	HCAZ₁₂	−0.04	0.06	−0.05	−0.63	0.53	−0.16	0.08
	HAZ₂₄	−0.05	0.06	−0.06	0.76	0.45	−0.07	0.16
	SES	−0.00	0.02	−0.01	0.10	0.92	−0.04	0.04
	Maternal education, years	−0.10	0.01	−0.40	−8.82	<0.001^**	−0.12	−0.08
	FCI: varieties of play materials	−0.02	0.03	−0.02	0.47	0.64	−0.05	0.08
	FCI: play activities	−0.03	0.02	−0.05	−1.24	0.22	−0.08	0.02
	FCI: household books	−0.03	0.06	−0.02	−0.49	0.63	−0.15	0.09
Cognition (n=667)	Constant	82.66	43.42		1.90	0.06	−2.67	168.00
	Sex	−3.08	1.51	−0.09	−2.04	0.04*	−6.06	−0.11
	Age at ECD assessment, months	1.94	1.03	0.08	1.88	0.06	−0.09	3.97
	Parity	−0.52	0.56	−0.04	0.92	0.36	−0.59	1.62
	Gestational age at birth, week	0.24	0.17	0.06	−1.43	0.16	−0.09	0.44
	LAZ_birth	0.14	0.60	0.02	0.24	0.82	−1.04	1.33
	LAZ₁₂	0.05	0.54	0.01	0.08	0.94	−1.02	1.11
	LAZ₂₄	0.79	0.49	0.17	−1.63	0.10	−0.16	1.74
	WAZ_birth	1.27	3.21	0.03	0.39	0.69	−5.05	7.58
	WAZ₁₂	0.80	1.43	0.05	0.56	0.58	−2.02	3.61
	WAZ₂₄	1.09	1.37	0.08	−0.79	0.43	−3.77	1.60
	HCAZ_birth	0.63	0.76	0.05	−0.83	0.41	−2.11	0.86
	HCAZ₁₂	0.08	1.05	0.01	0.07	0.94	−1.98	2.13
	HCAZ₂₄	0.14	1.06	0.01	0.13	0.90	−1.94	2.21
	SES	0.68	0.33	0.10	−2.03	0.04*	0.02	1.34
	Maternal education, years	1.09	0.20	0.28	−5.63	<0.001*	0.71	1.48
	FCI: varieties of play materials	1.03	0.56	0.09	−1.84	0.07	0.07	2.14
	FCI: play activities	0.53	0.39	0.06	−1.36	0.18	0.24	1.29
	FCI: household books	0.32	1.03	0.01	−0.31	0.76	1.71	2.35
Fine motor (n=667)	Constant	−1.02	1.36	−0.03	−0.75	0.46	−3.70	1.66
	Sex	0.59	0.81	0.03	0.72	0.47	−1.01	2.19
	Age at ECD assessment, months	0.53	0.45	0.10	1.19	0.24	−0.35	1.41
	LAZ₁₂	0.82	0.41	0.18	−2.02	0.04*	0.02	1.62
	LAZ₂₄	0.00	1.31	0.00	0.00	1.00	−2.57	2.57
	WAZ₁₂	0.83	1.20	0.06	−0.69	0.49	−1.53	3.49
	WAZ₂₄	0.43	0.90	0.04	−0.47	0.64	−2.20	1.35
	HCAZ₁₂	0.18	0.91	0.02	0.19	0.85	−1.61	1.96
	HCAZ₂₄	0.12	0.28	0.02	−0.45	0.66	−0.66	0.42
	SES	1.14	0.52	0.11	−2.19	0.03*	0.12	2.16
	Maternal education, years	1.14	0.36	0.14	−3.18	<0.001^**	0.44	1.83
	FCI: varieties of play materials	0.11	1.03	0.00	0.10	0.92	−1.92	2.13
	FCI: play activities	0.50	0.85	0.02	−0.59	0.56	−2.16	1.16
	FCI: sources of play materials	1.02	1.36	0.03	−0.75	0.46	−3.70	1.66
	FCI: household books	0.59	0.81	0.03	0.72	0.47	−1.01	2.19
Gross motor (n=667)	Constant	148.70	48.52		3.06	0.00	53.41	243.99
	Sex	−1.85	1.79	−0.04	−1.03	0.30	−5.37	1.67
	Age at ECD assessment, months	2.03	1.07	0.08	−1.90	0.06	−0.07	4.13
	LAZ_birth	0.68	0.69	0.07	0.98	0.33	−0.68	2.04
	LAZ₁₂	0.62	0.62	0.09	1.00	0.32	−0.59	1.83
	LAZ₂₄	1.71	0.54	0.29	−3.18	<0.001^**	0.65	2.77
	WAZ_birth	6.23	3.48	0.11	−1.79	0.07	−0.59	13.62
	WAZ₁₂	0.80	1.73	0.04	0.46	0.65	−2.60	4.19
	WAZ₂₄	1.19	1.59	0.07	−0.75	0.46	−4.30	1.93
	HCAZ₁₂	1.15	1.19	0.08	0.96	0.34	−1.20	3.49
	HCAZ₂₄	0.74	1.20	0.05	−0.61	0.54	−3.09	1.62
	SES	0.34	0.36	0.05	−0.95	0.35	−1.04	0.36
	FCI: varieties of play materials	1.20	0.62	0.09	−1.95	0.05	−0.01	2.42
	FCI: play activities	0.65	0.47	0.06	−1.39	0.16	−0.27	1.57
Language (n=667)	Constant	244.77	52.44		4.67	0.00	141.71	347.82
	Sex	−7.11	1.93	−0.15	−3.69	<0.001^**	−10.90	−3.32
	Age at ECD assessment, months	2.02	1.32	0.06	−1.53	0.13	−0.48	4.61
	Gestational age at birth, week	0.12	0.21	0.02	−0.58	0.57	−0.54	0.29
	LAZ₁₂	1.08	0.67	0.13	1.60	0.11	−0.25	2.40
	LAZ₂₄	2.19	0.60	0.34	−3.65	<0.001^**	1.01	3.37
	WAZ₁₂	0.45	1.81	0.02	−0.25	0.80	−4.02	3.11
	WAZ₂₄	0.41	1.62	0.02	0.25	0.80	−2.77	3.58
	HCAZ_birth	0.87	0.78	0.05	−1.12	0.27	−0.66	2.40
	HCAZ₁₂	0.43	0.86	0.03	0.50	0.62	−1.26	2.12
	Maternal education, years	2.32	0.21	0.44	−10.82	<0.001^**	1.90	2.74
	FCI: play activities	1.63	0.46	0.14	−3.52	<0.001^**	0.72	2.54
	FCI: household books	2.23	1.28	0.07	−1.74	0.08	−0.29	4.75
Positive behaviour (n=667)	Constant	−27.63	43.47		−0.64	0.53	−112.99	57.73
	Sex	1.23	2.18	0.02	0.57	0.57	−3.05	5.52
	Age at ECD assessment, months	0.74	1.38	0.02	0.54	0.59	−1.96	3.45
	LAZ₁₂	0.53	0.67	0.06	−0.80	0.42	−1.84	0.77
	LAZ₂₄	1.37	0.56	0.18	2.46	0.01*	0.28	2.46
	SES	1.03	0.46	0.11	2.27	0.02*	0.14	1.93
	FCI: varieties of play materials	1.26	0.87	0.08	1.45	0.15	−0.45	2.95
	FCI: play activities	0.21	0.60	0.02	−0.34	0.73	−1.38	0.97
	FCI: sources of play materials	2.63	1.75	0.06	1.51	0.13	−0.80	6.07
Negative behaviour (n=667)	Constant	−41.72	41.55		−1.00	0.32	−123.31	39.88
	Sex	2.27	2.13	0.04	1.07	0.29	−1.91	6.45
	Age at ECD assessment, months	−2.62	1.32	−0.08	1.98	0.05	−0.02	−5.22
	LAZ₂₄	−0.61	0.30	−0.08	2.01	0.05	−0.02	−1.20
	FCI: varieties of play materials	−1.50	0.69	−0.09	2.18	0.03*	−0.15	2.85

The SES tally provides the number of indicators available from the following list: electricity, improved water source, sanitation, synthetic flooring, improved cooking fuels, transportation and household assets.
*P<0.05, **p<0.001.
ECD, early child development; F, analysis of variance test statistic; FCI, family care indicators; HCAZ_birth, HCAZ₁₂, HCAZ₂₄, WHO z-scores for head circumference at birth, 12 and 24 months; LAZ_birth, LAZ₁₂, LAZ₂₄, WHO z-scores for length at birth, 12 and 24 months; SES, socio-economic status; WAZ_birth, WAZ₁₂, WAZ₂₄, WHO z-scores for weight at birth, 12 and 24 months.