Salivary Cortisol in Relation to the Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in School-Aged Children

Abstract

Long periods of use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) may raise strong emotions and lead to cog-nitive fatigue. The current study focused on the impact of ICT use the preceding day on the next-day salivary cortisol pattern in 72 school-aged children (39 at the age ten and 33 at the age 13). Salivary cortisol levels were measured at five time points from awakening to bedtime. Time spent in different ICT activities the day before salivary sampling was measured by an activity diary. Results showed that the participants who had used ICT on an average three hours the preceding day showed a significantly reduced cortisol increase one hour after awakening (awakening response) com-pared to those who had used ICT not at all or less than one hour after controlling for pubertal status and the level of depression. The results suggest a stress response as a consequence of a long period of ICT use.

Share and Cite:

Wallenius, M. , Hirvonen, A. , Lindholm, H. , Rimpela, A. , Nygard, C. , Saarni, L. & Punamaki, R. (2010). Salivary Cortisol in Relation to the Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in School-Aged Children. Psychology, 1, 88-95. doi: 10.4236/psych.2010.12012.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

[1] D. A. Christakis, B. E. Ebel, F. P. Rivara and F. J. Zim-merman, “Television, Video, and Computer Game Usage In Children Under 11 Years of Age,” The Journal of Pe-diatrics, Vol. 145, No. 5, 2004, pp. 652-656.
[2] D. F. Roberts, “Media and Youth: Access, Exposure, and Privatizaton,” Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2000, pp. 8-14.
[3] R.-L. Punamäki, M. Wallenius, C.-H. Nygård, L. Saarni and A. Rimpelä, “Use of Information And Communication Technology (ICT) And Perceived Health In Adolescence: The Role Of Sleeping Habits And Waking-Time Tiredness,” Journal of Adolescence, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2007, pp. 660-670.
[4] M. Wallenius, A. Rimpelä, R.-L. Punamäki and T. Linto-nen, “Digital Game Playing Motives among Adolescents. Relation to Parent-Child Communication, School Per-formance, Sleeping Habits, and Perceived Health,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2009, pp. 463-474.
[5] S. McNamee, “Foucaults’s Heterotopia and Children’s Everyday Lives,” Childhood, Vol. 4, No. 4, 2000, pp. 479-492.
[6] S. Lenot-Ledunois, G. Vardon, P. Perruchet and J. Gallego, “The Effects of Attentional Load on the Breathing Pattern in Children,” International Journal of Psychophysiology, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1998, pp. 13-21.
[7] S. Kaplan, “The Restorative Benefits of Nature: Toward an Integrative Framework,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 15, No. 3, 1995, pp. 169-182.
[8] J. A. Veltman and A. W. Gaillard, “Physiological Work-load Reactions in Increasing Levels of Task Difficulty,” Ergonomics, Vol. 41, No. 5, 1998, pp. 656-669.
[9] U. Lundberg, B. Melin, G. W. Evans and L. Holmberg, “Physiological Deactivation after Two Contrasting Tasks at a Video Display Terminal: Learning Vs. Repetitive Data Entry,” Ergonomics, Vol. 36, No. 6, 1993, pp. 601-611.
[10] S. Hérbert, R. Béland, O. Dionne-Fournelle, M. Crête and S. J. Lupien, “Physiological Stress Response to Video- Game Playing: The Contribution of Built-In Music,” Life Sciences, Vol. 76, No. 20, 2005, pp. 2371-2380.
[11] G. Felsten, “Where to Take a Study Break on the College Campus: An Attention Restoration Theory Perspective,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 29, No. 1, 2009, pp. 160-167.
[12] J. F. Lopez, H. Akil and S. J. Watson, “Neural Circuits Mediating Stress,” Biological Psychiatry, Vol. 46, No. 1, 1999, pp. 1461-1471.
[13] G. W. Evans and L. A. Marcynyszyn, “Environmental Justice, Cumulative Environmental Risk, and Health among Low and Middle-Income Children in Upstate New York,” American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 94, No. 11, 2004, pp. 1942-1944.
[14] S. J. Lupien, S. King, M. J. Meaney and B. S. McEwen, “Can Poverty Get Under Your Skin? Basal Cortisol Levels and Cognitive Function in Children from Low and High Socioeconomic Status,” Development and Psychopatology, Vol. 13, No. 3, 2001, pp. 653-676.
[15] A. Dettling, M. R. Gunnar and B. Donzella, “Cortisol Levels of Young Children in Full-Day Childcare Centers: Relations with Age and Temperament,” Psychoneuroen-docrinology, Vol. 24, No. 5, 1999, pp. 519-536.
[16] A. K. Goenjian, et al., “Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal activity among American Adolescents with PTSD Symp-toms,” Journal of Traumatic Stress, Vol. 16, No. 4, 2003, pp. 319-323.
[17] M. Carlson, et al., “Effects of Social Deprivation on Cor-tisol Regulation in Institutionalized Romanian Infants,” Society of Neuroscience Abstracts, Vol. 218, No. 12, 1995, p. 524.
[18] M. Lindahl, T. Theorell and F. Lindblad, “Test Perform-ance and Self-Esteem in Relation to Experienced Stress in Swedish Sixth and Ninth Graders-Saliva Cortisol Levels And Psychological Reactions to Demands,” Acta Paedi-atrica, Vol. 94, No. 4, 2005, pp. 489-495.
[19] W. Kliewer, “Violence Exposure and Cortisol Responses in Urban Youth,” International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2006, pp. 109-120.
[20] A. Clow, L. Thorn, P. Evans and F. Hucklebridge, “The Awakening Cortisol Response: Methodological Issues and Significance,” Stress, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2004, pp. 29-37.
[21] S. Wust, J. Wolf, D. H. Hellhammer, I. Federenko, N. Schommer and C. Kirschbaum, “The Cortisol Awakening Response-Normal Values and Confounds,” Noise and Health, Vol. 2, No. 7, 2000, pp. 79-99.
[22] U. Knutsson, et al., “Circadian Cortisol Rhythms in Healthy Boys and Girls: Relationship with Age, Growth, Body Composition, and Pubertal Development,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, Vol. 82, No. 2, 1997, pp. 536-540.
[23] J. G. M. Rosmalen, A. J. Oldehinkel, J. Ormel, A. F. de Winter, J. K. Buitelaar and F. C. Verhulst, “Determinants of Salivary Cortisol Levels in 10-12 Year Old Children: A Population-Based Study of Individual Differences”, Psy-choneuroendocrinology, Vol. 30, No. 5, 2005, pp. 483- 495.
[24] E. K. Adam, “Transactions among Adolescent Trait and State Emotion and Diurnal and Momentary Cortisol Ac-tivity in Naturalistic Setting,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, Vol. 31, No. 5, 2006, pp. 664-679.
[25] S. Edwards, A. Clow, P. Evans and F. Hucklebridge, “Exploration of the Awakening Cortisol Response in Re-lation to Diurnal Cortisol Secretory Activity,” Psycho-neuroendocrinology, Vol. 26, No. 6, 2001, pp. 613-622.
[26] J. Gaab, L. Sonderegger, S. Scherrer and U. Ehlert, “Psy-choneuroendocrine Effects of Cognitive-Behavioral Stress Management in a Naturalistic Setting—A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, Vol. 31, No. 4, 2006, pp. 428-438.
[27] M. Wessa, N. Rohleder, C. Kirschbaum and H. Flor, “Al-tered Cortisol Awakening Response in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, Vol. 31, No. 2, 2006, pp. 209-215.
[28] A. D. Roberts, S. Wessely, T. Chalder, A. Papadopuolod and A. J. Cleare, “Salivary Cortisol Response to Awak-ening in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome,” British Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 184, No. 2, 2004, pp. 136-141.
[29] G. Meinlschmid and C. Heim, “Decreased Cortisol Awakening Response after Early Loss Experience,” Psy-choneuroendocrinology, Vol. 30, No. 6, 2005, pp. 568- 576.
[30] L. M. Fulgham, “Effects of Videogame Play in Boys: An Examinaion of Adrenocortical Activity and Behaviour,” Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sci-ences & Engineering, Vol. 64 (2-B), No. 2, 2003, pp. 983.
[31] S. Denot-Ledunois, G. Vardon, P. Perruchet and J. Gallego, “The Effects of Attentional Load on the Breathing Pettern in Children,” International Journal of Psy-chophysiology, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1998, pp. 13-21.
[32] L. Steinberg and A. S. Morris, “Adolescent Development,” Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 52, No. 1, 2001, pp. 83-110.
[33] E. Thieden, P. A. Philipsen and H. C. Wulf, “Compliance and Data Reliability in Sun Exposure Studies with Diaries and Personal, Electronic UV Dosimeters,” Photoderma-tology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2006, pp. 93-99.
[34] T. H. A. Van der Voort and M. W. Vooijs, “Validity of Children’S Direct Estimates of Time Spent Television Viewing,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Vol. 34, No. 1, 1990, pp. 93-99.
[35] J. Jacobs, N. A. Nicolson, C. Derom, P. Delespaul, J. Van Os and I. Myin-Germeys, “Electronic Monitoring of Salivary Cortisol Sampling Compliance in Daily Life,” Life Sciences, Vol. 76, No. 21, 2005, pp. 2431-2443.
[36] M. Kovacs, “Children’s Depression Inventory,” Multi-health Systems, New York, 1992.
[37] B. Birmaher, “Psychometric Properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): A Replication Study,” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 38, No. 4, 1999, pp. 1230-1236.
[38] T. Solantaus and S. Toikka, “The Efficient Family: An Intervention Study on the Prevention of Mental Disorders in Children with Affectively Ill Parents,” Juvenes Print, Tampere 2005.
[39] J. C. Preussner, C. Kirschbaum, G. Meinlschmid and D. H. Hellhammer, “Two Formulas for Computation of the Area Under the Curve Represent Measures of Total Hormone Concentration Versus Time-Dependent Change,” Psy-choneuroendocrinology, Vol. 28, No. 7, 2003, pp. 916- 931.
[40] F. A. J. L. Scheer and R. M. Buijs, “Light Affects Morning Salivary Cortisol in Humans,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, Vol. 84, No. 9, 1999, pp. 3395-3398.
[41] S. R. Kunz-Ebrecht, C. Kirschbaum, M. Marmot and A. Steptoe, “Differences in Cortisol Awakening Response on Work Days and Weekends in Women and Men from the Whitehall II Cohort,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, Vol. 29, 2004, pp. 516-528.
[42] J. Bruce, E. P. Davis and M. R. Gunnar, “Individual Dif-ferences in Children’s Cortisol Reponse to the Beginning of a New School Year,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, Vol. 27, No. 6, 2002, pp. 635-650.
[43] B. M. Kudielka and C. Kirschbaum, “Awakening Cortisol Responses are Influenced by Health Status and Awakening Time but Not by Menstrual Cycle Phase,” Psycho-neuroendocrinology, Vol. 28, No. 1, 2003, pp. 35-47.
[44] I. Federenko, S. Wust, D. H. Hellhammer, R. Dechoux, R. Kumsta and C. Kirschbaum, “Free Cortisol Awakening Responses are Influenced by Awakening Time,” Psycho-neuroendocrinology, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2004, pp. 179-184.
[45] J. E. Broderick, D. Arnold, B. M. Kudielka and C. Kir-schbaum, “Salivary Cortisol Sampling Compliance: Com-parison of Patients and Healthy Volunteers,” Psychoneu-roendocrinology, Vol. 29, No. 5, 2004, pp. 636-650.
[46] R. J. Davidson and W. Irwin, “The Functional Neuro-anatomy of Emotion and Affevtive Style,” Trends in Cognitive Science, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1999, pp. 11-21.
[47] A. R. Damasio, “A Second Chance for Emotions,” In: R. D. Lane and L. Nadel, Eds., A second chance for emotions, Oxford University Press, New York, 2000, pp. 12-13.
[48] L. D. Dorn, R. E. Dahl, H. R. Woodward and F. Biro, “Defining the Boundaries of Early Adolescence: A User’s Guide to Assessing Pubertal Status and Pubertal Timing in Research With Adolescents,” Applied Developmental Science, Vol. 10, No. 1, 2006, pp. 30-56.
[49] J. M. Tanner and R. H. Whitehouse, “Atlas of Children’S Growth: Normal Variation and Growth Disorders,” Aca-demic Press, London, 1982.
[50] J. M. Turner-Cobb, “Psychological and Stress Hormone Correlates In Early Life: A Key to HPA-Axis Dysregula-tion and Normalisation,” Stress, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2005, pp. 47-57.
[51] R. M. Sapolsky, “Why Stress is Bad for Your Brain,” Science, Vol. 273, No. 5276, 1996, pp. 749-750.
[52] G. W. Evans, K. M. Allen, R. Tafalla and T. O’Meara, “Multiple Stressors: Performance, Psychophysiological and Affective Responses,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, Vol. 16, 1996, pp. 147-154.
[53] S. J. Lupien, C. W. Wilkinson, S. Briere, C. Menard, N. M. Ng Ying Kin and N. P. Nair, “The Modulatory Effects of Corticosteroids on Cognition: Studies in Young Human Populations,” Psychoneuroendocrinology, Vol. 27, No. 3, 2002, pp. 401-416.
[54] B. S. McEwen and J. C. Wingfield, “The Concept of Al-lostasis in Biology and Biomedicine,” Hormones and Be-havior, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2003, pp. 2-15.

Copyright © 2024 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

Creative Commons License

This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.